Lannon, Chapter 20

CHAPTER 20- TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS

Purpose of Technical Definitions
Help the reader understand just what the hell is going on. Some words like efficacy can have many different meanings and go to different extents of understanding, by defining it at the beginning it allows the readers to understand what and to what extent the term describes. They help cut down on miss understandings especially in contracts and leases.

Levels of Detail in a Definition 
How much detail is necessary.
-parenthetical definition: familiar synonym
-sentence definition: +1 sentences, [1] item [2] class [3] distinction
- expanded definition: depends on the level of understanding needed

Expansion Methods
-etymology: words origin
-history and background
-negation: what it doesn't mean
-operating principle: operation
-analysis of parts: how each individual part works to create the whole
-visuals: show what happens
-comparison and contrast
-required materials or conditions: special handling
-example: demonstrate

Placement of Definitions 
make sure they help and are incorporated into the flow of information.

Lannon, Chapter 19

CHAPTER 19- WEB PAGES

Online information is a critical form of communication because it's easy to update and cheaper then printing. However, writing on the web requires training and a large skill set.

HTML
This language is used to create web pages. It's universal, even this blog is broken down into HTML formating that you can edit.

Elements of a Usable Web Site
-accessibility: easy to enter, navigate and exit.
-worthwhile content: contain all explanations
-sensible arrangement: well thought out and executed plan
-good writing and page design
-good graphics and special effects: attention grabbing and entertaining

GUIDELINES FOR CREATING A WEB SITE
planing your site
- identify audience
- purpose
- content
- interaction
- research for design ideas
Layout 
- chunk info
- design pages to guide audience
- graphics that are quick to download
- text only info as well
- accessible
- info flow
- introduction
- navigation aids
- style
- take cultures into account
- printable version
Checking, Testing and Monitoring your Site
- check site
- legal constrictions
- usability testing
- maintain

Lannon, Chapter 18

CHAPTER 18: EMPLOYMENT CORRESPONDENCE

Employment Outlook in the Twenty-First Century
"free agents" are on the rise, persons who are only with a company long enough to complete a project.

Prospecting for Jobs
start by studying the job market
-assess your skills and aptitudes: specific qualities you can bring
-research the job market: search early, don't wait for the job. look for courses that will make you more marketable.
-search online: improve speed and range of finding jobs.
-learn to network: best chance is knowing someone who knows someone.

Preparing your Resume
Companies want to know what you can do for them.
- typical components of a resume: contact info, objectives, education, work experience, personal data, personal interests, references.
    +contact info: current information.
    + job and career objectives: spell out the kind of job you want. different statements for different jobs.
    + education: place first if more substantial then work. school name, degree, year completed, major, minor
        any courses with direct relationship with job. class rank, gpa.
    + work experience: if it relates list it. dates employed, employer, contact information, full time/part time
    + personal data: if personal info could help you get the job (race, gender, etc)
    + personal interests, awards, skills: hobbies and interests relevant.
    + references: 3-5 people (already agreed) to provide strong assessments of qualifications.
    + portfolio: to illustrate your skills- if you have one indicate on resume
    + resumes from a template: easy to organize
-organizing the resume: convey the best strongest image of your skill set. highlight with revers chronology
-sample resumes for different situations: different resumes for different purposes
(1) reverse chronological resume: lots of work experience
(2) functional resume: limited work experience
(3) modified functional resume: high level of skills and work experience

Preparing your Job Application Letter
include a cover letter with each resume, emphasize your personal qualities. Relate the info of the resume back to the company.
-Solicited Application letter:
     + introduction:  confident tone, personal pronouns, name the job, where you found it, identify self
        background and establish a connection
     + body: make your case, support all points with evidence
     + conclusion: restate interest, request interview or phone call with times you can be reached.
-Unsolicited Application Letter: be forceful.
      + excellent prototype letter
      + customize for each job
      + dynamic tone: active voice and action words
      + don't be vague
      + don't exaggerate
      + enthusiastic
      + avoid flattery
      + plain english, concise
      + more then one draft
      + don't photo copy a letter
      + PROOF READ

Submitting Electronic Resumes
make your resume scannable.
- types of electronic resumes
     + email: directly attach pdf or text.
     + ASCII: text only.
     + searchable resumes: hyperlinked resume, on website.
- protecting privacy and security when posting a resume online: limit the contact and personal information online.
-protecting your good name online: "shadow resume"

Support for the Application
- dossier: credentials-  college transcripts, recommendation letters, other items.
- portfolio: apply skills and stand out

Employment Interviews
 confirm employer's impression; for this be prepared! research the company.
-THE FOLLOW UP LETTER: short thank you letter, reassert connection.
-Letters of Acceptance or Refusal: ask for a written copy of the terms you are accepting. courteously accept/ refuse the position with a written letter.

Lannon, Chapter 17

  CHAPTER 17: WORKPLACE LETTERS

Letters are more formal and personal then email or memos. Using proper tone is a big deal for letters because they are often for persuasive purposes.

Element of  Usable Letters

basic components of a letter:
- heading and date
         return address
         city, state zip
         date
-inside address
          name of recipient
          work place
          address
          city state zip
- salutation: show proper respect for their accomplishments- include title
           dear [insert title name]
- body text: begin 2 lines below salutation.
             (1) intro paragraph (purpose and connection)
             (2) discussion paragraphs (details)
             (3) concluding paragraph
- complimentary closing: 2 lines after last text line, align with heading
-signature: type full name and title 4-5 lines below, sign between closing and typed name if for your
       company place company name under closing then sign.

Specialized Parts of Letters:
- attention line: if name of recipient is unknown or if addressed to specific dept or position; 2 lines
        below address
-subject line: if they are not expecting letter
- typist's initials- if someone else typed letter for you [LM/vs]
- enclosure notation: if other documents are included [Enclosures 4]
- distribution notation: if other copies of letter to others indicated by [Copy/cc]
- Postscript: adds personal note, 2 lines below any notation

Design Features:
-letter format: may be specific for company
-word-processing templates: make sure the template is appropriate
-quality stationery: [high quality, 20-lb bond, 8.5"x11" white, with at least 25% fiber]
-uniform margins and spacing: 1.5" on top, side/bottom 1-1.5"
- headers for subsequent pages: additional pages [recipient, date, page number]
-the envelope: standard letter writing techniques

Interpersonal Consideration in Workplace Letters
accessible, inviting design- focus your letter on the interests of the recipient. Don't be rude, and use plain english, keep it concise. Create a connection with your reader, and anticipate their reactions. debate whether the recipient will prefer a direct or indirect letter.

Conveying Bad or Unwelcome News
You will, at some point, be the bearer of bad news. You must be persuasive and courteous, so that your reader will accept your findings.  

Inquiry Letters
Solicited or unsolicited. You are imposing upon the recipient to take time out of their day to read your letter, research, and respond, so apologize for the imposition, appreciation, and propose a reasonable request. If you have too many questions, or they are too in depth ask for an interview. 
-choosing your medium: you are asking for a favor, consider which medium will be best accepted.
- telephone and email inquiries: unsolicited interviews can be informative and helpful, but may be seen as unwelcome and irritating. Letters are always a good introduction to get a positive response.

Claim Letters
Letters used to address and request a solution to a problem or mistake.
-Routine Claims: straightforward because backed by guarantee or contract.
-Arguable Claims: persuading the recipient to grant your claim.

Adjustment Letters
most companies will make a reasonable claim how ever the adjustment should be refused if it is unreasonable.
-Granting Adjustments: keep customers satisfied
     good news
     what went wrong-correction
     never blame employees as scapegoats
     do not promise problem won't recur
      end positively
-Refusing Adjustments:
      indirect organizational plan
      make the refusal clearly
      avoid patronizing or accusing
      close courteously and positively

Lannon, Chapter 16

CHAPTER 16- MEMO REPORTS AND ELECTRONIC CORRESPONDENCE

Documents in Hard-Coby vs. Digital Format
Most correspondence is still written and the paper document still remains the standard.


Informational vs. Analytical Reports
Information (what we are doing, did, surveys) and analysis (what this means)
ANALYSIS IS THE HEART OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION, valid conclusions and decisions based on what is best given the information.


Formal vs. Informal Reports
Short (informal) reports also lead to informed decisions in the work place.


Purpose of Memo Reports
major form of communication in most work places, so that there is a paper trail for future reference.


Elements of a Usable Memo 
easy to scan file and retrieve
one main topic, short, concise
make the intended reader obvious


Interpersonal Considerations in Writing a Memo
memo topics usually involve evaluations or recommendations.
don't offend people- complaining, too critical, too formal or informal, wrong medium, being too bossy, or neglecting to get a copy to every one who needs it

Direct vs. Indirect Organizing Patterns 
two basic patterns:
- Direct: begin with main point, then present details/ analysis
- Indirect: layout details before bottom line

Informational Reports in Memo Form
-Progress reports: monitor activities, projects to help with organizations and funds
   = what has been accomplished
   = on schedule
   = what went wrong? problem fixed? getting back on schedule
   = what needs to be done? next step.
   = unexpected developments
   = completions or next phase
- Periodic Activity Reports: general activities during a given period
- Meeting Minutes: track proceedings and remind members of responsibilities

Analytical Reports in Memo Form 
logically arrive at a conclusion derived from the information
- Feasibility Reports: assess whether an idea/plan is realistic and practical
   = likely to succeed?
   = why?
   = assessment criteria
   = benefits vs. risks
   = alternatives
   = funding
- Recommendation Reports: interpret data, conclusions, and course of action
- Justification Reports: justify the writer's position
   = problem and recommendations
   = benefits vs cost
   = explain implementation
   = encourage action

E-mail
tend to be informal and conversational, usually simple messages
- Benefits: lack of time constraints, efficient filing, retrieval and forwarding, attachments, democratic communication, creative thinking, collaboration and research
- Copyright Issues: copyrighted to person who wrote it
- Privacy Issues: can be sent to anyone

IMing
faster than email, text based conversation.

Corporate Blogs and Wikis
increasing amount of corporate blogs as a source of information.
- internal blogs: enhance workflow and morale; wikis allow for editing of other comments and posts.
- external blogs: public context, customer feedback public relations
- RSS feeds: rich site summary, retrieval program that presents the most relevant topics to the user
-ethical legal and privacy issues: all are open to abuse.

Lannon, Chapter 15

CHAPTER 15- DESIGNING PAGES AND DOCUMENTS

Page design is how the document will look.

Page Design in Workplace Documents 
make the document look easy to read so they will actually read.

How Page Design Transforms a Document
design cues help to chunk information.

Design Skills Needed in Today's Workplace
software has been developed to help with page layout (eg: microsoft publisher)
-desktop publishing: combine word processing, typesetting and graphics.
-electronic publishing: create documents in a digital format.
-style sheets and company style guides: keep the document consistent when working with a group

Creating a Usable Design
shape the page==> styling the words and letters==> adding emphasis and orientation
1) shaping the page: look feel and overall layout
     a) using the right paper
     b) use consistent page numbers, headers and footers- keep it cohesive
     c)  use a grid- plan where everything goes
     d) use white space to create areas of emphasis
      f) provide ample margins- small margins make a page look crowded
     g) keep line length reasonable
     h) keep line spacing consistent
     i) tailor each paragraph to it's purpose
     j) make lists for easy reading
2) using typography effectively
     a) select appropriate type face- different cultures like different fonts
     b) use easy to read fonts
     c) use FULL CAPS SPARINGLY
3) using heading for access and orientation
     a) layout headings by level- announce sections
     b) decide how to phrase your headings
     c) make headings visually consistent and grammatically parallel- find something stick with it

Audience Considerations in Page Design 
know what your audience wants and needs to understand and glen what you want from your work.

Designing On-Screen Documents 
1) web pages- need to be screen sized chunks
2) online help- specialty, needs consistency
3) PDF files- cannot be altered or changed by other users, keep their formating
4) CD's and other media- HTML is standard for creating web pages, identify early the types of media you want to use.

Lannon, Chapter 14

CHAPTER 14- DESIGNING VISUAL INFORMATION

Visuals are used focus and organize information, as well as, making it easier to understand.

Why Visuals Matter
they help people understand information at a glance. easier to see trends when looking at a graph as opposed to a list of numbers.

When to use Visuals
when they:
- clarify a point
- further discussion
- want to focus audience
- help audience remember
but remember use them to help your goal not just to make the page look pretty.

Types of Visuals to Consider 
- tables: organize exact values or information
- graphs: comparisons, trends
- charts: relationships
- graphic illustrations: pictures rather then words

How to Select Visuals
ask questions to help best fit your work:
- purpose?
- audience?
- which will help to better understand information?

Tables
can be used to organize both quantitative and qualitative data. keep them simple and easy to read and understand. once again keep the audience in the back of your mind- what will work for them.

Graphs
"translate numbers into shapes, shades, and patterns" easily help readers to grasp relationships and big picture ideas.
-bar graphs: easy to understand, comparisons.
     = simple: one trend or theme
     = multiple: two or three relationships
     = horizontal: large series of bars arranged from lg to sm.
     = stacked: how individual bars contribute to whole
     = 100%: each part that makes up the whole
     = deviation: both positive and negative
     = 3-d: gain attention and emphasize
- line graphs: more data points, lg amounts of info
     = simple: one line
     = multiline: several relationships
     = deviation: above and below 0
     = band/area: highlight specific info
     = multiple band: sums rather then direct comparisons- easy to misinterpret
- charts: relationships
     = pie charts: easy to understand, parts and percentages of whole
     = organizational: hierarchy or relationships between departments
     = flow: procedure or process from beginning to end
     = tree: how the parts of an idea or concept relate
     = gantt: parts in relation to idea or concept, timelines, how phases of a project will relate
     = PERT: geometric shapes and weighted arrows
     = pictograms: cross between bargraph and chart

Graphic Illustrations 
anything visual that relies on pictures. used to show spacial relations, what something actually looks like.
- diagrams: presenting views that can't be captured by photographing
     = exploded: how items are assembled
     = cutaway: exterior layers removed
     = block: simplified sketches
- maps: comparisons, visualize relationships

Photographs
showing how something looks, stock photos that you can change to suit your document.

Software and Downloadable Images 
help to create high quality graphics

Using Color
Color makes things more interesting. grabs the readers attention. clarify and organize information. Orient, help locate important info, emphasize.

Ethical Considerations 
Present the real picture, the whole picture. Don't mistake distortion for emphasis

Cultural Considerations 
not all cultures read right to left, take this into account when creating a specific document for users from different cultures.

Lannon, Chapter 13

CHAPTER 13- EDITING FOR READABLE STYLE

This chapter is about creating a "readable" style, basically making you wording such that the readers will be able to understand and follow what you say because of the way you say it.  style consists of:
1. the construction of sentences
2. length of sentences
3. connection between sentences
4. wording and phrases
5. tone
A good writing style will keep the reader from having to do more work then necessary. With out an easy to understand and read style, your work will loose impact and readers.
CLEAR, CONCISE, FLUENT, EXACT, LIKEABLE- this is what your style needs to be.

Editing for Clarity
**rule of thumb: a clear sentence should require only one read through.
-avoid ambiguous pronoun references (he she it they their)
-avoid ambiguous modifiers (make it obvious which subject is being modified)
-unstack modifying nouns (too many nouns)
- arrange word order for coherence and emphasis (each idea and sentence building on the previous)
-use active voice ( I did it vs. it was done by me)
-selective use of passive voice
- avoid over stuffed sentences (too much detail)

Editing for Conciseness
**most information, fewest words
-avoid wordy phrases
-eliminate redundancy
-avoid needless repetition
-avoid using "there" as a sentence starter
-avoid "it" sentence starters
-delete needless prefaces
-avoid weak verbs
-avoid excessive prepositions
-fight noun addiction (nouns made from verbs)
-make negatives positive (use different wording)
- take out clutter words (very, really, actually, currently)
-no needless qualifiers (i feel, i think)

Editing for Fluency
fluidity--making things flow
-combine related ideas
-vary sentence length and construction
-short sentences=emphasis

Finding the Exact Words
-simple and familiar wording
-avoid useless jargon
-use few well know acronyms unless explained
-avoid being trite (cliches)
-avoid misleading euphemisms
-avoid overstatement
-avoid imprecise wording
-be specific and concrete

Adjusting your tone
1) distance between reader and writer
2) attitude towards subject
-use occasional contraction
-address readers directly
-use i and we when appropriate
-active voice
-positive emphasis
-avoid informal tone
-avoid personal bias
-avoid sexist usage
-avoid offensive wording

Considering the cultural context 
guidelines are for the north american standard and may not translate well to other cultures.

Legal and ethical implications of word choice
use careful word choice and avoid offending persons.

Using automated editing tools effectively 
Don't rely on automated tools because although they check spelling and some grammar it's pretty much guaranteed that some error will be missed. 

Lannon, Chapter 12

CHAPTER 12- ORGANIZING FOR USERS

Try to make it so that your readers can follow your thought process, organize you work in such a way that they can understand. ask simple questions to help you create a good flow for your work.

Partitioning and Classifying
     partition- dealing with only one thing
    classifying- similar things
the choice between these two separations of information, depends mostly on what you want to get out of your writing- your goal.

Outlining
This is you organizing the facts, figures, and information based on importance and classification. You need to place the most important things to get across in such a way that the reader can follow and can pick out. Make sure it makes sense and it flows. Do not go jumping from one subject to another all willy-nilly like-- it confuses people and maybe even yourself. Start with the basics: intro, body, conclusion. Start with a list of your main topics, add subtopics and side notes so that when you begin to write, you write on each subject as it comes up-- makes writing easier and more organized then just typing as you go. The finished outline is not done until the final version of the paper and works as the table of contents. ALSO note that organization method you use may change when you want to cross over cultures.

Storyboarding
this is a "sketch" of the finished document- more visual then just the basic outline. This allows you to map out your paper subject by subject and allows for easy movement and revision of material. Good to use when working with a group, so that everyone can see where the project is heading and submit suggestions.

Paragraphing 
Paragraphs allow for a pause in reading- shows a change in subject. Long works look daunting for readers, the use of paragraphs help to cut down the information into bite sized chunks. This allows the reader pauses during reading to process and better understand the information being presented. Support paragraphs help to support your main idea by presenting different reasons and information that will further your claims and ideas. Topic sentences give the reader of what is coming up, helps them prepare and get in the mindset needed for reading about the topic-- the one sentence that tells you everything, but not in detail. Paragraph Unity makes it so that all of one topic is together, it belongs together and supports the topic statement. Paragraph Coherence MAKE IT FLOW, should read like on continuous thought and is easy to follow.
1-- topic sentence
2-3-- first reason given then explained
4-5-- second reason given explained
6-8-- third (major) reason given explained
9-- conclusion (emphasis on main point)
Paragraph Length depends on the purpose and the capacity of the reader to understand.

Sequencing
Keep you work logical and easy to follow for others. Spatial sequence start at one point (top left) and work your way down (bottom right) in you description of an object. Chronological sequence follow the sequence of events as they happened. Effect-to-Cause identify the problem then follow it to the causes. Cause-to-Effect follow action to results. Emphatic sequence makes important things stand out. Problem-causes-solutions sequence description of problem to the causes and proposes a solution. Comparison-contrast sequence comparing two or more items through similarities and differences.

Chunking
Breaking down information into easy to "digest" pieces that are appealing to the reader and can be followed easily.

Creating an Overview
Give an immediate preview of the contents of your work- what is it about, why is it important, what kind of information will be presented.

Lannon, Chapter 11

CHAPTER 11- SUMMARIZING AND ABSTRACTING INFORMATION

Summaries are very important to get all the necessary facts and conclusions in such a way that a person that doesn't have the time to read the full document can understand and use the information you've presented.  summaries are meant to be concise and easy to read.
Expectations:

• accuracy- precise image of the full text
• completeness- main ideas and reasoning 
• readability- concise, easy to understand
• conciseness- informative, brief, word limit 
• nontechnical style- plain English 

Summaries are for when you prepare a report, or proposal  and you summarize the works of others. a closing summary  is used to refresh the readers memory as to what they read before the conclusions. an informative abstract essentially the full text in short form. descriptive abstract, 1-3 sentences about the report, doesn't include the main points. Executive abstract can replace the entire report.

Ethical considerations- what to leave out and what to include.

Lannon, Chapter 10

CHAPTER 10- EVALUATING AND INTERPRETING INFORMATION

Evaluating you information begins with getting multiple views on the subject in question, doing this will help limit the amount of bias when you go to interpret what you've learned.   Check the dependability of your sources: are they well supported? is it verifiable? is it believable? Take into account the weaknesses of each article's argument and if all their claims are sound.

 Not all sources are equal check the timing- make sure you're up to date but if your research calls for it look in to historical findings as well, see how opinions and options have changed over the years. Published books, even new ones can contain information more then a year old. If it's a printed source, check the publishing information, check the author's credibility, as well as the publishers- was it published by a university or society etc. check the bibliography, citations can be a good source of other resources. If it is an online source, check it's credibility as well. Look in to the persons sponsoring the studies to see possible bias and motives. cross check sources.

In evaluating evidence, see if what you have is sufficient to prove your point, separate hard and soft evidence- factual, expert opinions from speculation. Is the evidence balanced and reasonable? is the data being interpreted for us? do they cloud their findings with opinions and spicy language?

Now we get to interpreting your findings, your overall judgement and conclusions about you research.
1) identify certainty level
       ultimate truth- conclusive answers
       probable answer- what is most likely true, new discoveries may challenge or change what we think
       inconclusive answer- not enough is known of the subject, the answer is harder to see then thought
2) examine the underlying assumptions
       some assumptions are the wide spread applications of sample groups
3) personal bias
4) other possible interpretations

Try to avoid error in your reasoning, " we derive conclusions about what we don't know y reasoning from what we do know [Hayakawa 37]" (P. 158).
1. faulty generalizations
2. faulty casual reasoning
3. faulty statistical reasoning
                sanitized statistic- manipulated numbers
                meaningless statistic- exact numbers used when approximations should be
                undefined average- mean, median, mode confused
                distorted percentage figure- no explanation of the original numbers
                bogus ranking- items compared on ill defined criteria
               correlation and causation mix up- correlation doesn't mean causation
               biased meta-analysis- study of studies
               fallible computer model- depend on assumptions
               misleading terminology- expert and laypersons misinterpretation

Research has limits. validity and reliability- surveys can be misconstrued with people picking the answer they think is wanted. Flaws in research studies, there are limitations to all the types of studies. Measurement errors, all measurements are prone to error. deceptive reporting, the language used in the reporting will change the way people interpret your reports.

Lannon, Chapter 9

CHAPTER 9-EXPLORING PRIMARY SOURCES

Primary sources are interviews, surveys, questionnaires, inquiry letters, official records, and personal observation because they are original or firsthand study of a topic.

Informative interviews contact an expert because much of what they know is not published in their or others work.

Surveys and Questionnairs can be very useful, but the setup has to be specific to you're needs and you have to anticipate trend that may happen and devote questions to them. However after the survey, if a trend is found it is very hard to go back and get detailed answers. Many things can skew a survey like length and attitude. Each question must be worded specifically to get what you what to know across to the taker. Surveys are good for quantifying subjective data.

Many government and cooperate records are available to the general public thanks to the Freedom of Information Act, and most can be found online.

Experiments are controlled observations used to find the reliability of a fact, general observation, hypothesis, or opinion.

Lannon, Chapter 8

CHAPTER 8- EXPLORING ELECTRONIC AND HARD COPY SOURCES

Hard copy vs. Electronic Sources:

• Hard copies- organized and searched by librarians, screened by experts, easier to preserve, but they are time consuming to search, only offer text and images, and are hard to update. 
• Electronic Sources- more current, easily accessible, narrow searches or broad, can offer multi-media, but the material access is only resent, can't be relied on all the time, and the user can get distracted and mislead. 

Internet has become the main way the most research is done, as journal, magazines, newspapers and archives have been made accessible from the internet. The main issue with the internet is the reliability of the information gleamed. Anyone can place anything on the internet, just because it's there does not mean it's accurate. Most online journals, newspapers, news cooperations, and government sites can be trusted. Information can even be discussed, and commented on. 

Other electronic sources: CD's and online retrieval services.

Hard copy sources are books, printed journals and newspapers.